Critically assess whether a criminal justice system based on Essay

Critically assess whether a criminal justice system based on resolution and restoration would be more effective than the one based on punishment - Essay Example They need a second chance because many have not received even a first chance. Additionally, rehabilitation is by far the best option for them because of the way they would almost certainly be exploited and turned into hardened criminals if sent to prison. This paper will provide further background to the issue of rehabilitating juvenile offenders, and strongly argue that it is the right approach. The justice system fulfills an important symbolic function by establishing standards of conduct. It formally defines right and wrong for citizens and frees them from the responsibility of taking vengeance, thus preventing the escalation of feuds within communities. The system protects the rights of free citizens by honoring the principle that individual freedom should not be denied without good reason. Rehabilitation has as its objective the return of offenders to the community as cured and viable members of society. The rehabilitation efforts of the 1980s and 1990s were to a large extent unsuccessful. No program appeared to be any more effective in changing criminals than any other program, so a sizable portion of the people released from prison continued to return (Murphy 49). This led many to conclude that the best, and possibly only, alternative was simply to remove offenders from the community, precluding any further vexation and exploitation by them. Since criminals are though t to be more likely to commit crimes than those never convicted of a criminal act, it follows that some benefits will be derived from incarcerating convicted criminals. Incapacitation has the greatest potential as a method of crime control if it is a few hardened criminals who commit most crimes. If they can be identified, convicted, and incarcerated for long periods, a significant reduction in crime would be realized. Most advocates of punitive reform have this perspective on the criminal population. Blame for the majority

Food safety Essay Example for Free

Food safety Essay However, according to Unit 04 Communication of Health Consumers Directorate-General of the European Commission (SANCO): The Codex, while being recommendations for voluntary application by members, Codex standards serve in many cases as a basis for national legislation. The reference made to Codex food safety standards in the World Trade Organizations Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS Agreement) means that Codex has far reaching implications for resolving trade disputes. WTO members that wish to apply stricter food safety measures than those set by Codex may be required to justify these measures scientifically. So, an agreement made in 2003, signed by all member states, inclusive all EU, in the codex Stan Codex 240 – 2003 for coconut milk, sulphite containing additives like E223 and E 224 are allowed till 30 mg/kg, does NOT mean, they are allowed into the EU, see RASFF entries from Denmark: 2012. 0834; 2011. 1848; en 2011. 168, â€Å"sulphite unauthorised in coconut milk from Thailand â€Å". Same for polysorbate E 435: see 2012. 0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates in coconut milk and, 2007. AIC from France. Only for the latter the EU amended its regulations with (EU) No 583/2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, already used for decades and absolutely necessary. Australia[edit]Food Standards Australia New Zealand is working toward ensuring that all food businesses implement food safety systems to ensure food is safe to consume in a bid to halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, this includes basic food safety training for at least one person in each business. Smart business operators know that basic food safety training improves the bottom line, staff take more pride in their work; there is less waste; and customers can have more confidence in the food they consume. Food Safety training in units of competence from a relevant training package, must be delivered by a Registered Training Organization (RTO) to enable staff to be issued with a nationally recognised unit of competency code on their certificate. Generally this training can be completed in less than one day. Training options are available to suit the needs of everyone. Training may be carried out in-house for a group, in a public class, via correspondence or online. Basic food safety training includes: Understanding the hazards associated with the main types of food and the conditions to prevent the growth of bacteria which can cause food poisoning and to prevent illness The problems associated with product packaging such as leaks in vacuum packs, damage to packaging or pest infestation, as well as problems and diseases spread by pests. Safe food handling. This includes safe procedures for each process such as receiving, re-packing, food storage, preparation and cooking, cooling and re-heating, displaying products, handling products when serving customers, packaging, cleaning and sanitizing, pest control, transport and delivery. Also the causes of cross contamination. Catering for customers who are particularly at risk of food-borne illness, including allergies and intolerance. Correct cleaning and sanitizing procedures, cleaning products and their correct use, and the storage of cleaning items such as brushes, mops and cloths. Personal hygiene, hand washing, illness, and protective clothing. People responsible for serving unsafe food can be liable for heavy fines under this new legislation, consumers are pleased that industry will be forced to take food safety seriously. China[edit]Main article: Food safety in the Peoples Republic of China Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture. The Chinese government oversees agricultural production as well as the manufacture of food packaging, containers, chemical additives, drug production, and business regulation. In recent years, the Chinese government attempted to consolidate food regulation with the creation of the State Food and Drug Administration in 2003, and officials have also been under increasing public and international pressure to solve food safety problems. However, it appears that regulations are not well known by the trade. Labels used for green food, organic food and pollution-free food are not well recognized by traders and many are unclear about their meaning. A survey by the World Bank found that supermarket managers had difficulty in obtaining produce that met safety requirements and found that a high percentage of produce did not comply with established standards. [6] Traditional marketing systems, whether in China or the rest of Asia, presently provide little motivation or incentive for individual farmers to make improvements to either quality or safety as their produce tends to get grouped together with standard products as it progresses through the marketing channel. Direct linkages between farmer groups and traders or ultimate buyers, such as supermarkets, can help avoid this problem. Governments need to improve the condition of many markets through upgrading management and reinvesting market fees in physical infrastructure. Wholesale markets need to investigate the feasibility of developing separate sections to handle fruits and vegetables that meet defined safety and quality standards. [7] European Union[edit]The parliament of the European Union (EU) makes legislation in the form of directives and regulations, many of which are mandatory for member states and which therefore must be incorporated into individual countries national legislation. As a very large organisation that exists to remove barriers to trade between member states, and into which individual member states have only a proportional influence, the outcome is often seen as an excessively bureaucratic one size fits all approach. However, in relation to food safety the tendency to err on the side of maximum protection for the consumer may be seen as a positive benefit. The EU parliament is informed on food safety matters by the European Food Safety Authority. Individual member states may also have other legislation and controls in respect of food safety, provided that they do not prevent trade with other states, and can differ considerably in their internal structures and approaches to the regulatory control of food safety. France[edit]Agence nationale de securite sanitaire de lalimentation, de lenvironnement et du travail (anses) is a French governmental agency dealing with food safety. Germany[edit]The Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer. Protection (BMELV)[8] is a Federal Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. History: Founded as Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Foresting in 1949, this name did not change until 2001. Then the name changed to Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture. At the 22nd of November 2005, the name got changed again to its current state: Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. The reason for this last change was that all the resorts should get equal ranking which was achieved by sorting the resorts alphabetically. Vision: A balanced and healthy diet with safe food, distinct consumer rights and consumer information for various areas of life, and a strong and sustainable agriculture as well as perspectives for our rural areas are important goals of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV). The Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety is under the control of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. It exercises several duties, with which it contributes to safer food and thereby intensifies health-based consumer protection in Germany. Food can be manufactured and sold within Germany without a special permission, as long as it does not cause any damage on consumers’ health and meets the general standards set by the legislation. However, manufacturers, carriers, importers and retailers are responsible for the food they pass into circulation. They are obliged to ensure and document the safety and quality of their food with the use of in-house control mechanisms. Hong Kong[edit]In Hong Kong SAR, the Centre for Food Safety is in charge of ensuring food sold is safe and fit for consumption. India[edit]Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, is the regulating body related to food safety and laying down of standards of food in India. New Zealand[edit]See also: Food safety in New Zealand The New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA), or Te Pou Oranga Kai O Aotearoa is the New Zealand government body responsible for food safety. NZFSA is also the controlling authority for imports and exports of food and food-related products. The NZFSA as of 2012 is now a division of the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) and is no longer its own organization. Pakistan[edit]Pakistan does not have an integrated legal framework but has a set of laws, which deals with various aspects of food safety. These laws, despite the fact that they were enacted long time ago, have tremendous capacity to achieve at least minimum level of food safety. However, like many other laws, these laws remain very poorly enforced. There are four laws that specifically deal with food safety. Three of these laws directly focus issues related to food safety, while the fourth, the Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority Act, is indirectly relevant to food safety. The Pure Food Ordinance 1960 consolidates and amends the law in relation to the preparation and the sale of foods. All provinces and some northern areas have adopted this law with certain amendments. Its aim is to ensure purity of food being supplied to people in the market and, therefore, provides for preventing adulteration. The Pure Food Ordinance 1960 does not apply to cantonment areas. There is a separate law for cantonments called The Cantonment Pure Food Act, 1966. There is no substantial difference between the Pure Food Ordinance 1960 and The Cantonment Pure Food Act. Even the rules of operation are very much similar. Pakistan Hotels and Restaurant Act, 1976 applies to all hotels and restaurants in Pakistan and seeks to control and regulate the rates and standard of service(s) by hotels and restaurants. In addition to other provisions, under section 22(2), the sale of food or beverages that are contaminated, not prepared hygienically or served in utensils that are not hygienic or clean is an offense. There are no express provisions for consumer complaints in the Pakistan Restaurants Act, 1976, Pakistan Penal Code, 1860 and Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority Act, 1996. The laws do not prevent citizens from lodging complaints with the concerned government officials; however, the consideration and handling of complaints is a matter of discretion of the officials. [9] South Korea[edit]Korea Food Drug Administration[edit]Korea Food Drug Administration (KFDA)[10] is working for food safety since 1945. It is part of the Government of South Korea. IOAS[11]-Organic Certification Bodies Registered in KFDA: Organic or related claims can be labelled on food products when organic certificates are considered as valid by KFDA. KFDA admits organic certificates which can be issued by 1) IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement) accredited certification bodies 2) Government accredited certification bodies – 328 bodies in 29 countries have been registered in KFDA. Food Import Report: According to Food Import Report,[12] it is supposed to report or register what you import. Competent authority is as follows: Product.

The Low Cost Housing Pandemic Construction Essay

The Low Cost Housing Pandemic Construction Essay This research report has been compiled for the purpose of providing an efficient and effective solution to the glaring housing pandemic currently prevalent in South Africa. The South African government has to some extent, through the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), realised their obligation as mentioned above; however, the desired results have not yet been achieved. It has been a daunting task for the government to provide housing to the large population of indigenous people, so young into a democracy. The aim of this research is essentially, to provide a solution to the perplexing problem of providing adequate housing as it is a fundamental human right, and it must be noted that the lack of success over the years in providing the said housing has caused an insurmountable amount of distress to affected communities and has put an enormous amount of pressure on the South African Government in terms of their obligations toward service delivery. Consequently, this compilation presents undoubted findings which imply that the government is being pressurized by the housing backlog within the KwaZulu- Natal Region, more especially on the area known as the Kennedy Road informal settlement which is part of the Suburb of Clare Estate and also includes the Umlazi B10 Housing Project and in turn they require suggestions on a more concrete approach to sustainably meet the demands placed upon them by the ever growing populous. One such suggestion that must be viewed with a keen eye is the relatively new and exciting initiative introduced by Moladi, which has already been used in countries such as India, Mexico and Nigeria with tremendous success. South Africa has been plagued by an almost unsolvable housing crisis. It must be noted that the specific goal of this research is to assist in exploring new alternatives to the conventional building methods employed by the Reconstruction and Development Programme, which will subsequently be proven, has fallen apart. Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background-History of research According to Sayed Ally (2009:3), despite the fact that South Africa is 18 years into the great democracy of 1994, a large percentage of the indigenous population in this country have been subjected to deplorable and in actual fact, completely inexcusable living conditions. Sayed Ally (2009:3) further highlights that promises of improved housing conditions, better education and lower unemployment levels have not materialized to date, however, we cannot say that the struggle has been in vain as South Africa has progressed from being labelled as an apartheid state, to becoming one of the most developed countries on the African continent. Part of the stepping stones to this achievement have been through strategies based on the improvement of education facilities, black empowerment policies to level the plain fields of the previously disadvantaged, and housing initiatives such as the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP). However, as mentioned by Sayed Ally (2009:4), we have not tasted the fruits of success, as implementation of some of these policies has failed to lift off the ground. This is blatantly evident as the presence of slums or shacks as it is referred to colloquially, have become the popular means of shelter for those underprivileged individuals who had trusted in the promises made by their ideal government. Although there have been attempts made by the government to replace the informal settlements with low cost housing, this process has been slow indeed. According to Majavu (2011:2) the department of performance monitoring and evaluation in the Presidency has warned parliament s human settlements portfolio committee that the Human Settlements Department is making slow progress on 2014 targets. The primary concern to the government should be to solve the housing problem by providing suitable shelter to all citizens in need of it. This is because people with homes to go to, have a sense of belonging. (Wikipedia, 2012) A roof over the head of an individual grants him the opportunity of maintaining his/ her human dignity! It is a fundamental right of any human being to have a house, and duly stated in Section 26 of the South African Bill of Rights. Sayed Ally (2009:4). If successful, the alternative provided by this research will provide assistance in resolving the ongoing housing problem in Kwazulu-Natal through the initiative discussed below, and hopes to provide not only shelter, but also employment as well as ease the burden of the government in providing adequate service delivery, thus making South Africa a better place for all those who live in it. 1.2 Problem Statement The problem to be investigated may be stated as:- Moladi (the concept of shell housing), an alternative to South Africa s conventional construction methods, once incorporated into the Governments low cost housing policy, may assist in overcoming the failures prevalent in providing low cost housing which are associated with the conventional construction methods, thereby providing permanent shelter to displaced South Africans. 1.3 Objectives The objectives of this study are: i. Comparing and identifying the traditional building methods in the construction of low cost housing, design-and-build and the provision of an excellent end product. ii. Identifying factors such as: innovative designs, workmanship, selection of inappropriate material, approval of defective products and the quality of staff. iii. To identify and propose appropriate alternative solutions to challenges regarding the lack of sufficient funds, the shortage of skilled labourers, a lack of resources, work flow control, time constraints and wastage. 1.4 Significance of this research study The above averments have one goal and that is to assist in the process of repairing the problems created by poorly constructed conventional method houses in the affected areas of Kwa-Zulu Natal. Sayed Ally (2009:13) points out that over the past 15 years, many companies were contracted to build low cost houses for the previously disadvantaged, however, till today we find homeless people living on the side of the road, or if they are lucky, to live in an informal settlement. The numerous cases of poorly constructed houses, corrupt contractors, and misuse of government funding has done little to help the man on the street. The government has even gone to the extent of hiring foreign companies such as Golden Nets International to complete the job, but even they produced inefficient homes which subsequently collapsed in bad weather. The research that follows herein below examines the impact that shoddy building techniques has had upon low-cost housing in South Africa, more so in Kwa-Zulu Natal. This would be done through the examination of factors such as design and workmanship. In addition, the anticipated outcome of this research is to see a change in the quality of low-cost housing projects as well as an improved product for house occupants. 1.5 Design According to Wentzel L (2010:3), most of the blame for inadequate building performance and low quality work is placed on the designer. This however puts a lot of pressure on the designer, pressure such as a lack of awareness of the building processes; or for failing to understand the latest technology and the performance of innovative materials; or the reluctance to delegate authority to project-based supervisors; or simply for not spending more time on these building sites. However, Barrie and Paulson (1984) mention that designers generally recognize that no human undertaken task produces absolutely perfect results. Therefore designers often specify not only the desired standard for the characteristics that define a product, such as dimensions or strength, but tolerance or ranges for acceptable variations from the standard. These standards therefore need to be maintained and quality of conformance monitored by the construction manager, who will also be held liable if quality standar ds drop. Wentzel L (2010:3). A proudly South African initiative otherwise known as Moladi, takes construction to an entirely new dimension. The speed and minimal costs involved, allow for the development of building a house a day Moladi.net (2012). The multi award winning Moladi construction system was founded in South Africa in 1986 as a method of building cast in place reinforced monolithic structures Moladi.net (2012). The Moladi technology was developed as a means to alleviate many of the cumbersome and costly aspects associated with conventional construction methods without compromising on the quality or integrity of the structure Moladi.net (2012). Managing director Mr Hennie Botes states that the Moladi system involves the use of a removable, reusable, recyclable and lightweight plastic formwork mould to produce a durable and permanent structure, which has been subject to numerous tests and independent reports. As the system is not pre-fabricated off the building site or dependant on skilled labour, the use of the Moladi system allows for local, unskilled labour to be employed, he stated Moladi.net (2012). Women, who have traditionally been either reluctant or discouraged from working within the male-dominated sector, are encouraged to participate in the non-labour intensive building process, Mr Botes added Moladi.net (2012). He explained further that the process involves assembling a mould the size of the designed house, with all the electrical services, plumbing and steel reinforcing located within the wall structure, which is filled with a South African Bureau of Standards approved lightweight mortar to form all the walls of the house simultaneously Moladi.net (2012). The method, he noted, eliminates the time and labour intensive work of chasing, beam filling, plastering and generates no waste. 1.6 Workmanship According to Wentzel L (2010:3), when human error occurs at the setting-out stage of the construction process (which is the first physical activity in the chain of activities), the result might be very costly and the ripple effect down the chain of activities maybe disastrous in terms of time constraints. Swain and Guttmann (1983), found four types of errors in the construction industry. They are: time, qualitative, sequence and quantitative errors, which can take place. Time errors occur when a task must be performed within a specific time. Qualitative errors are such errors which include right action on wrong object, wrong action on right object, wrong action on wrong object, information not obtained/ transmitted or substitution/ intrusion error. Sequence errors however occur when an activity is done or performed out of sequence. Quantitative errors are errors which are made in rates, prices, and mathematical errors. Wentzel L (2010:3) Wentzel L (2010:4) stated further that, when focusing on the issues such as the housing backlog, design faults, lack of skilled shortages and client manipulation, it is made clear that all these factors influence low-cost housing in South Africa currently. As mentioned above the Moladi Shell Housing concept, has been designed and manufactured to address the six key challenges that determine the successful implementation of low cost housing projects in developing countries. These challenges would be the lack of sufficient funds, the shortage of skilled labourers, a lack of resources, work flow control, time constraints and wastage Moladi.net (2012). Chasing, beam filling, plastering and wastage are eliminated, producing a fast track, cost effective, transferable construction technology Moladi.net (2012). (Moladi.net 2012:3) (Moladi.net 2012:3) (Moladi.net 2012:3) (Moladi.net 2012:3) 1.7 Limitations i. The research is conducted specifically on the construction processes of low cost housing units. ii. Research is angled at mass housing initiatives providing an alternative to the normal building techniques (using brick and block). iii. The research area is confined to the Kwa Zulu Natal (Clarestate and Umlazi) region. iv. The research was completed in a time frame of six months. Some of the limitations regarding Moladi are: v. Moladi systems cannot be used or are undesirable for use in boundary walls. They are primarily used for housing. vi. Moladi systems cannot be used to build cavity walls. However, it provides good thermal and water proofing properties. vii. Moladi systems cannot be used to do extensions to homes. Moulds for once of applications would not be cost effective. 1.8 Conclusion In conclusion, alternate building techniques form an integral component to the building industry; however, it is inflated significantly when examining low-cost housing. By analyzing objectives stated in this chapter, we can consequently draw conclusions about the building techniques that are currently used in the construction of low-cost housing in South Africa, in comparison to newer innovations and techniques that may better address the issue. Chapter 2 Literature review 2.1 Introduction Objectives were presented in the preceding chapter in order for the identification of possible problems that are related to workmanship qualities and poor design methods in the construction process in terms of the provision for low cost housing. Quality standards were also raised alongside time and cost factors, which affected design as well as workmanship at the same time. In order to place these submissions in proper perspective, this chapter will review the relevant literature that is currently available, particularly on shoddy building techniques and its impact on the low-cost housing sector. 2.2 Building techniques Building may refer to, any human-made structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or an act of construction (i. e. the activity of building. (Wikipedia, 2012). Building Techniques refer to different methods adopted in construction processes and phases which provide alternate options to conventional or traditional building methods. It also plays a substantial role in the low-cost housing sector because of the high demand for mass housing that has to be constructed over short contract periods. Low income housing refers to residences for persons or families with low annual household earnings. Its purpose is to provide places for people to live within their range of affordability. Quality is being severely compromised as more focus is being placed on quantity. 2.3 Poor construction techniques and the R.D.P According to Mbonambi (2012:4), an article that appeared in the Mercury Newspaper, soil and mud tumbled down into the back walls of people s homes and water seeped through the walls and floors, this is what residents of Umlazi have experienced in their new RDP homes since moving in early in 2011. The article states further that some residents were afraid that their houses, in the Umlazi B10 housing project, would collapse and they would be injured or even killed. Some of the problems that contribute to the impending failure of the RDP programme are the use of inefficient labourers. In 2005, the Minister of Finance Trevor Manuel was taken on a tour to observe the good progress of RDP houses in Port Elizabeth, he was shocked when he saw that the millions of rands being spent by government were producing incomplete walls and door frames that were not according to size. (Sayed Ally: 2009:5) (Sayed Ally:2009:5) mentions further that this is one of many examples of the lack in competence of the labourers tasked with the responsibility of ensuring quality but efficient housing skills in the RDP programme. In contrast, the Moladi housing initiative does not require skilled labourers to build houses, in fact, it is mostly unskilled workers that are utilised, and more predominantly females are encouraged to be involved because of the simplicity and repetitive nature of the process Natasha Odendaal (2012:3) reported in the Engineering Newss print magazine that Human Settlements Minister Tokyo Sexwale stated that the rectification of substandard construction work on many of the low-cost housing projects throughout South Africa has left the State with a bill of about R50-billion. As a result of this, he again posed the question of whether it was time to establish a State-owned construction company to undertake the many housing projects in the country engineeringnews.co.za (2012). Having considered the above it can be deduced that, current building techniques are failing dismally. The minister was exasperated when he stated that inexperienced, less-than-credible shovel, wheelbarrow and bakkie brigade construction groups involved in the tenders for governments housing programmes were delivering shoddy workmanship and many of their constructions were falling apart. Black economic-empowerment was not a licence to deliver substandard or poor-quality work, he said engineeringnews.co.za (2012) Odendaal (2012:3). Sayed Ally (2009:5) avers that in addition to the higher costs and incompetent nature associated with RDP housing, the programme has been riddled with numerous counts of corruption on the part of project managers and other stakeholders involved. The development in the Mpumalanga region has reported that as many as 8000 houses were left incomplete after project managers filled their pockets and quietly exited the scene (SamaYenda, 2005). It is due to these factors that public perception has embraced a negative attitude to the process of low cost housing. As a mandatory requirement, the institution of a project of this magnitude would require efficient labourers, who have been trained on the job to produce the most efficient results. According to Tabane (2002:1), Gauteng pays 41 million rand for 8 RDP houses, the city of Gauteng paid 41 million rand (forty one million Rand) for 8 RDP houses this means that the eight RDP houses cost the Gauteng housing department a whopping R5-million each. It is just one of the startling findings uncovered by an investigation team appointed by Housing MEC Paul Mashatile. It is evident that various electronic as well as print media associations are publishing their discoveries regarding the ineffectiveness of the RDP, but still, it seems that rampant corruption and inefficiency on the path of government is ever present and in fact stalling the rate of success needed for the completion of the incumbent housing projects. Streek (2001;5) confirms that 7.5-million people are still without shelter, and between two and three million houses still had to be built to meet this need. Many of these people are living in informal settlements in urban areas, where 53.6% of the population live, whereas others share accommodation. The pace of housing delivery annually has declined from 300 000 in 1997 to about 200 000 the following year richardknight.homestead.com (2012) Streek (2001;5) states that the housing shortage is still desperate, he further states that, Minister of Housing Sankie Mthembi-Mahanyele says, we will be slowing down further we have to look at the quality issue and at tenure alternatives richardknight.homestead.com (2012). 2.4 Traditional and Alternate Building Techniques South Africa is a third world country that is in its crawling stages of development. Emphasis has been placed on the drastic changes that need to occur in order for South Africa to move forward. The government has not been able to provide any suggestions to enhance the condition of housing thereby elevating the plight of those poor South Africans who have no roofs over their heads. 2.4.1 Traditional Building Techniques Traditional bricks or blocks are moulded in a small mould and then laboriously stacked by an artisan and sandwiched with mortar to form a wall structure. The electrical and water pipes are positioned by grinding and chasing into the brick wall. The wall is then plastered to cover the pipes and services, as well as the brickwork, to create a level and smooth surface Moladi.net (2012). 2.4.2 Alternate Building Techniques Supplemented by evidence that appears throughout this dissertation, Moladi comes forth as the most suitable alternative to repair the in-competencies of traditional building techniques currently used for low-cost housing. Moladi follows an optimised and sequential process. This allows for the number of unskilled labourers, which are utilised effectively, to be predetermined according to the size of the house, area of formwork for the intended unit and volume of the mortar Moladi.net (2012). The speed of the construction is also taken into consideration to calculate the number of unskilled labourers on site, with larger units having additional unskilled labour to optimise construction time Moladi.net (2012). Table 2.4.2.1 as shown below outlines the model of operation of the two day building process in a summarised step by step format adopted by Moladi Moladi.net(2012). Table 2.4.2.1 OUTLINE OF THE MODEL OPERATION DAY ONE- START 11HOO FINISH 17H00 DAY TWO- START 07H00 FINISH 17H00 STEP 1: Moladi Formwork is delivered to site. Area= 74m Mass= 550kg Volume= 3m? Moladi Formwork panels are assembled by unskilled labourers to form the mould panels of the desired house plan. STEP 1: Moladi formwork panels are removed Moladi formwork panels are completely removed in 2 hours with 4 unskilled labourers STEP 2: Internal Formwork panels are erected Window frames and block-outs are positioned within the wall cavity Reinforcing bars are positioned within the cavity to engineer specifications STEP 2: Immediately after the formwork panels are removed, the walls are painted with a water based paint Oil or acrylic based paint can be applied after the walls can be cured or within 28 days. STEP 3: Door frames and black-outs are positioned within the wall cavity External formwork panels are erected to close off the wall cavity Erection is completed in 4 hours with 4 unskilled labourers STEP 3: The engineer certified roof is installed The windows and doors are installed Final finishing s such as sanitary ware and lighting are completed The structure is now ready for occupation STEP 4: The wall cavity is filled with Moladi aerated mortar by unskilled labourers The pour is completed in 2 hours with 4 unskilled labourers Moladi.net(2012) To evaluate the viability of Moladi s housing techniques against conventional building techniques, some of the salient features are listed below: I. Moladi provides cheaper housing in a faster time period than any other form of housing. II. Efficiency of production is maximized as each foreman will be educated to minimize costs by Moladi project managers themselves and thus transferring their skills. III. Reusable nature of Moladi framework system makes it ideal in reducing costs as well as meeting environmental standards. IV. The process is not dependant on skilled labour. V. Experience, expertise and track record of our contractors will come into valuable use as a large operation of this magnitude will require diversification of skills. VI. A fast, simple, adaptable and a low construction cost technological building system. VII. Highly suited for use in mass housing markets, without compromising quality. VIII. Utilizes indigenous materials to produce high standard permanent structures that are earthquake, cyclone and tsunami resistant Moladi.net (2012). 2.5 Conclusion The creation of Moladi houses are very simple and differs from the normal lengthy building process commonly associated with construction. Once the foundation has been laid, a lightweight plastic shutter framework system (Moladi) is erected and mortar is used to cast the house resulting in a one piece reinforced walling system. (Moladi.com 2012:3) In a matter of 10 days, a Moladi house can be completed. Such an inference may ease government s pressure and allow them to focus on other avenues that need their attention such as poverty, health care and education. Chapter 3 Research methodology 3.1 Introduction Chapter 2 presented an overview of existing literature. It was determined that there are various factors leading to problems concerning poor building techniques in housing construction more so, affecting the low-cost housing sector. These factors however, do not only reflect pessimism but in actual fact they bring about a sense of prosperity for the simple reason that South Africa itself, is undergoing substantial development and growth which takes time and will invariably lead to an upliftment of the lives of those who are inadequately accommodated. In order to test the quality of Building Techniques two research methodological approaches were employed namely Qualitative and Quantitative methods which will be presented and analyzed to substantiate the validity of this research. 3.2 Qualitative Research Methodology Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific research consists of an investigation that: I. Seeks answers to a question. II. Systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question. III. Collects evidence. IV. Produces findings that were not determined in advance. V. Produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study. Qualitative research shares these characteristics. Additionally, it seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the perspectives of the local population it involves. Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values, opinions, behaviours, and social contexts of particular populations. (Qualitative research methods: A data Collector s field Guide 2012:1). 3.2.1 What are some qualitative research methods? The three most common qualitative methods, explained in detail in their respective modules, are participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Each method is particularly suited for obtaining a specific type of data. I. Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring behaviours in their usual contexts. II. In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals personal histories, perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored. III. Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups represented. (Qualitative research methods: A data Collector s field Guide 2012:2) The qualitative method as used in this research incorporates both questionnaires delivered by hand in association with standardised open ended interviews that were conducted. In order to gather theoretical and honest responses from the respondents emphasis is given to the method above. 3.3 Quantitative Research Methodology Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are used to obtain information about the world. (Burns Grove 2005:23) This research method is used: I. To describe variables; II. To examine relationships among variables; III. To determine cause-and-effect interactions between variables. (Burns Grove 2005:23) Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include: I. The generation of models, theories and hypotheses. II. The development of instruments and methods for measurement. III. Experimental control and manipulation of variables. IV. Collection of empirical data. V. Modelling and analysis of data. Wikipedia.org (2012) This method has also been incorporated into this research. Quantitative research is utilized in order to achieve appropriate statistical outcomes, which would assist in ascertaining supplementary theoretical recommendations and subsequent conclusions. 3.4 Questionnaires A questionnaire is a series of questions asked to individuals to obtain statistically useful information about a given topic. When properly constructed and responsibly administered, questionnaires become a vital instrument by which statements can be made about specific groups or people or entire populations. Wikipedia.org (2012) Questionnaires are frequently used in quantitative marketing research and social research. They are a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information from a large number of individuals, often referred to as respondents. Wikipedia.org (2012) Adequate questionnaire construction is critical to the success of a survey. Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or bad questionnaire format can make the survey valueless, as it may not accurately reflect the views and opinions of the participants. Wikipedia.org (2012) According to Wentzel L (2010:31) the data which is collected by questionnaires may be qualitative or quantitative. Wentzel L (2010: 31) further mentions that questionnaires do however lend themselves more to quantitative forms of analysis. This is partly because they are designed to collect mainly very discrete items or packages of information, with either numbers or words which can be coded and represented as numbers. Wentzel L (2010:31) in addition mentions that this emphasis is also partly due to the larger scale of many questionnaire surveys, and their common focus is on representation, which encourages a numerical or quasi-numerical summary of results. 3.4.1 Types of Questionnaires a. Contingency questions A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to them (for example, asking men if they have ever been pregnant) Wikipedia.org (2012). b. Matrix questions Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. The questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories along the top and a list of questions down the side. This is an efficient use of page space and respondents time Wikipedia.org (2012). c. Closed ended questions Respondents answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. Most scales are closed ended. Other types of closed ended questions include: I. Yes/no questions The respondent answers with a yes or a no. II. Multiple choice The respondent has several option from which to choose. III. Scaled questions Responses are graded on a continuum (example: rate the appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance). Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale, semantic differential scale, and rank-order scale (See scale for a complete list of scaling techniques Wikipedia.org (2012). d. Open ended questions No options or predefined categories

Logging :: essays research papers

I'm sure some of you have heard at least a little of what is going on down in the beautiful hardwood forests of Tassie? If not here's a short rundown on an extremely threatened area called the Styx valley Forrest... The Styx Valley contains the tallest hardwood trees on Earth. Many of the trees are taller than a 25-storey building, over 400 years old, and up to five metres wide at the base. The Styx is only 70 kilometres west of Hobart and is on the edge of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area – one of the great temperate wilderness areas on Earth. The Styx also contains large areas of unlogged rainforest. These forests are home to many native species of wildlife, including the majestic Wedge-tailed Eagle, the Eastern Pygmy Possum, the Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo, owls and rosellas. Other features that occur in the valley include limestone caves, tannin-stained Styx River, and several waterfalls. Now to the bad news†¦ Most of the giants of the Styx are threatened by logging. Between 300 and 600 hectares of the Styx Valley are logged each year. The main form of logging is clear felling and burning. The logging operations proceed by cutting down all the large timber and bulldozing the rest. The useful timber, primarily destined for woodchips, is removed and the area is then bombed from the air which ensures the whole area burns. Most of these trees will be sold as woodchips overseas for about $15 per tonne. After the logged area is burnt it is reseeded 1080 poison is laid down to kill animals who may feed on saplings. 1080 poison does not kill our native animals by putting in a relaxing sleep, it puts them through a long, agonising death, and it may take hours or even days of suffering for these native animals to die. What is at stake you may ask? Is the loss of some of Australia's, and the worlds, oldest hardwood trees for the sake of some measly woodchips a good enough argument, I certainly think so. The tall trees of the Styx are of international botanical importance. Their tourism potential has yet to be realised. They provide a point of contact with the past that once gone, is gone forever. Tall trees are also important for a sense of environmental continuity for future generations. Just reading this makes me feel sick. Our government says that we cannot stop logging because of job loss. Logging :: essays research papers I'm sure some of you have heard at least a little of what is going on down in the beautiful hardwood forests of Tassie? If not here's a short rundown on an extremely threatened area called the Styx valley Forrest... The Styx Valley contains the tallest hardwood trees on Earth. Many of the trees are taller than a 25-storey building, over 400 years old, and up to five metres wide at the base. The Styx is only 70 kilometres west of Hobart and is on the edge of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area – one of the great temperate wilderness areas on Earth. The Styx also contains large areas of unlogged rainforest. These forests are home to many native species of wildlife, including the majestic Wedge-tailed Eagle, the Eastern Pygmy Possum, the Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo, owls and rosellas. Other features that occur in the valley include limestone caves, tannin-stained Styx River, and several waterfalls. Now to the bad news†¦ Most of the giants of the Styx are threatened by logging. Between 300 and 600 hectares of the Styx Valley are logged each year. The main form of logging is clear felling and burning. The logging operations proceed by cutting down all the large timber and bulldozing the rest. The useful timber, primarily destined for woodchips, is removed and the area is then bombed from the air which ensures the whole area burns. Most of these trees will be sold as woodchips overseas for about $15 per tonne. After the logged area is burnt it is reseeded 1080 poison is laid down to kill animals who may feed on saplings. 1080 poison does not kill our native animals by putting in a relaxing sleep, it puts them through a long, agonising death, and it may take hours or even days of suffering for these native animals to die. What is at stake you may ask? Is the loss of some of Australia's, and the worlds, oldest hardwood trees for the sake of some measly woodchips a good enough argument, I certainly think so. The tall trees of the Styx are of international botanical importance. Their tourism potential has yet to be realised. They provide a point of contact with the past that once gone, is gone forever. Tall trees are also important for a sense of environmental continuity for future generations. Just reading this makes me feel sick. Our government says that we cannot stop logging because of job loss.

Understanding The Y2k Bug

As the Millennial sun rose over human civilization, in the independent republic of Kiribati, a group of some thirty low lying coral islands in the Pacific Ocean that straddle the equator and the International Date Line, the reality of the Y2K bug became apparent. This long awaited sunrise marks the dawn of the year 2000. Kiribati's 81,000 Micronesians observed nothing different about this dawn, they only received TV in 1989. (y2ksupply.com) However, those who live in a world that relies on satellites, air, rail and ground transportation, manufacturing plants, electricity, heat, telephones, or TV, experienced a true millennial shift, or not. We finally saw the extent of the networked and interdependent processes we had created. At the stroke of midnight, the new millenium closed the greatest challenge to modern society we have responded to yet. We didn†t experience this event, as chaos or social transformation. I am describing the year 2000 problem, known as Y2K (K signifying 1000). Nicknamed at first â€Å"The Millennial Bug,† increasing sensitivity even escalated the nickname to â€Å"The Millennial Bomb.† The problem begins as a simple technical error. Large mainframe computers more than ten years old were not programmed to handle a four digit year. Sitting here now, safely in the year 2000, it seems incomprehensible that computer programmers and microchip designers didn't plan for it. Programmers did whatever was required to get a product up and working; no one even thought about standards. This computer bug has been predicted to impact the world anywhere from a minor problem to the end of a civilization. Whichever view you took on the subject it is clear that this bug had a definite impact on the economy. Whichever view anyone took on this issue, didn†t really matter because the point is that everyone thought about it and dealt with the issue in his or her own way. In order to understand the Y2K bug we must first understand what it is. For many years electronic storage was very expensive. In the early days of computing a Megabyte or a million bytes of information could have cost up to $100,000 to store electronically. This same amount of information storage can now cost around ten cents. (Barr) Many programs that are date sensitive will react to this bug in a negative way. A good example of a problem that could occur due to the bug would be that of banking software. In that case one of the software†s functions would be to bill all of its customers with outstanding loans. This program works by sending the bill progressively every month until the loan is paid off. If the computer were to think that it was the year 1900 then none of these loans would have even been made yet and the computer would become unstable or cease to function. Much of this software can be repaired or replaced with new versions, however, some of it is not as easily replaced. A great deal of the code that is causing worry at the moment is actually imbedded in automated machinery. This code can†t be repaired, except by replacing the machinery itself. This code is in many of the machines that run companies, public utilities, and are even in our homes in such appliances as VCRs. This calculation problem explains why the computer system at Marks & Spencer department store in London destroyed tons of food during the process of doing a long-term forecast. The computer read 2002 as 1902. Instead of four more years of shelf life, the computer calculated that this food was ninety-six years old. It ordered it thrown out. A similar problem happened recently in the U.S. at the warehouse of a freeze-dried food manufacturer. In September 1998, Datamation magazine estimated that, on average, about 7% of all electronics are date sensitive and In November 1998, PCWeek, another leading trade journal, put the number at 5%. (Gibbons) The main emphasis seems to systems with many chips all working on real time clocks such as manufacturing plants. These systems were estimated at up to 30% not compliant with the Y2K problem. Companies with these systems have had trouble being ready for Y2K because in order to prepare for the problem the affected chips have to be isolated and repaired. In a system with thousands of these chips and little documentation on each one, this is an almost impossible chore. Replacing entire systems can cost millions of dollars and many companies can†t afford the cost of the repair. Billions of dollars were spent preparing for this event and much more will be spent in recovery. Most companies have been addressing the problem for the past few years. Very rarely do we get the chance to watch the entire industry lifecycle, from introduction in the early 90†³s and the decline and death of the industry in the early months of 2000. The entire industry has opened up just to deal with this problem. In the US most mission critical equipment was tested before 1999 and was either compliant or repaired. The systems that caused most concern were things like power grids, telephone networks, and air and land traffic controllers. These systems were of such great concern because some of these computers systems and networks have existed since the late 1950†³s. The fact was that no one could afford to entirely replace these systems, they had to be upgraded to be compliant. What was the impact on Government, Industry, and Small Business? There are several impacts to Government, Industry, and Small Business. Dates that can impact the leap year algorithms, boolean dates, fiscal year dates, calendar dates, and ASCII code dates. There are separate ramifications to the new dates. For the Government, the dates have a major impact across the board. Every Government agency, from Federal to City, will be impacted. The Federal Government uses computers on a daily basis and without them, the Federal Government is not able to operate. Some specific examples are in the Department of Commerce, Department of Defense, and the Department of Justice. The Department of Commerce utilizes computers to run the National Oceanic Atmospheric Association (NOAA) systems that are used to chase Hurricanes. The problem is that several of the computers are used to log different data and use date/time stamping with that data. This data is later analyzed to try and map hurricanes for the future. If the Y2K issues are not resolved, important data will be lost. The Department of Defense also uses computers to a very large extent. This is especially true for the DOD large complex machinery used to defend the country. There are very few parts of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines that do not use computers. Computers are the backbone to DOD and without them, there is a real fear that our armed forces would not be able to defend this country. (Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense) The Department of Justice has an even worse problem. They are charged with keeping track of criminals and federal indictments across the country. Because of the complexity of the laws, if the computers used to keep track of indictments and criminal records are not Y2K compliant, then the Justice system could have criminals cleared of any wrong doing because of a simple date issue. It is well known that if the date or address were wrong on an indictment or a search warrant, anything found because of the indictment or warrant could not be used in court. (Cohen) The Government agency that has had the most influence on the whole Y2K issue was the Internal Revenue Service. Basically the IRS has the greatest concern because they are charged with the duty of collecting revenue from the taxpayers in order to run the country. The theory is that the IRS, through Congress, could influence or scare business, banks, and individuals into awareness. (Chandrasekaran) This awareness translated into the hundred billion or so expenditures that banks, businesses, and individuals spent on being Y2K compliant. Industry had the same basic problems that the Government had. They rely on computers in almost every aspect of the business. From robotic assembly lines to employee payroll, all of industry relies on the computer to run its day to day operation. (Gwynne) The problem that both industry and Government have is that there was no contingency to the Y2K issue. Both industry and Government have several backup systems. The problem with small business is that they rely on the computer to do many of the tasks that employees used to do. In small business, people were employed to handle payroll, marketing, office management, files, record keeping, and profit/loss ledgers. These people were replaced with the advent of the computer. Now any small business could operate without minimal employees. The office manager could now handle payroll, marketing, files, records, and ledgers right on the computer. The computer became the key piece of equipment for the small business. Without the computer, small businesses could not stay in operation. Most small businesses have become dependent on the computer to replace employees. Without a computer, small businesses would need to hire additional personnel and return to paper and pencil to operate. An example may be Nations Bank; it may have its primary mainframe computer, for all its checking accounts, in one central place. There is a hot backup (a hot backup is a main frame computer that records the same exact information that the mainframe computer is recording, but it does not handle any transactions, just records the information) that is located in a different part of the country, say Colorado. In this way, if a major disaster were to devastate California, the hot backup would come on line take over the responsibility of the mainframe. (McMahon) In this way, vital information would not be lost. This was all thought out years before Y2K. Y2K would impact both mainframes (the primary and the backup) and all the data would be corrupted. What did Government, Industry, and Small Business do to combat the Y2K Issues? For both Government and Industry, it was not be a problem to combat Y2K. Both areas, through consulting agencies and internal working groups, developed a series of plans to combat the Y2K issue. The standard procedure is to first do an inventory and assessment on the agency. After the assessment is made, a renovation plan is developed to renovate the different systems. After renovation, a validation phase, where the renovation is tested using the different Y2K dates to ensure that no problems were encountered. The implementation phase is to implement the system into action, and begin watching the system during the actual crossover dates. The cost to perform all of the plans and phases are high. On most major DOD systems, the cost ranges from $100,000 to over $5 Million. For industry, their costs are about the same. It does not matter if the agency does it internally or hires consultants to perform the work. The consumer and/or taxpayer absorb the high costs in industry and/or Government caused by the expenditure on solving Y2K issues. Industry passed the costs to the consumer by increasing its price on the product. The Government modified the budget to get the necessary funds to ensure Y2K compliance. The real problem lies with small business. The plans and phases that were developed by industry and Government must also be accomplished by small business. The problem is that small business does not have the money to expend on the Y2K issue. Small businesses do not have the overhead or capital to afford to test its systems and ensure that Y2K problems do not exist in its machine. This is where the actual computer industry comes into the scene. Since most small businesses do not rely on consultants and do not have a computer expert on the payroll, then small businesses must rely on the software companies to ensure that the computer is Y2K compliant. Marketers quickly recognized the fact that many small businesses would be forced to purchase new hardware, software, and peripherals. Marketers were not afraid to sell replacement equipment that was not affected by this bug. Consultants profited on the fact that many individuals and small businesses were very ignorant on the issue at hand and how many individuals had little to no knowledge of what was occurring in the machine that they were using. Many of these machines could have been upgraded with a small BIOS chip that would allow the machine to function with the new date format. Application software that is used with Windows 98 may not be compliant, making the system non-compliant. Microsoft could not be held responsible for other software packages built by other software companies. In addition, most software companies will not support older versions of its software. An example is that Microsoft does not support Windows version 3.1. This is based on the availability of newer versions of Windows being available to the consumer. So where does this leave the small business? There is Federal and Local assistance available to help small business ensure that the Y2K issue is resolved prior to the actual dates. If the small business did not recognize that it has a problem, then it could not work to fix the Y2K issue in time. By combining their resources and working with the local support, a network of consultants could work together to fix the problem before the actual Y2K dates came. Here it is April 3, 2000, and the lights are on, there†s plenty of water, and the stock market is at a record high. There is widespread suspicion that the Y2K computer bug was no more than the media overreacting and getting people excited for nothing, and Y2K was a big dud. There may be some validity to this theory, but I think the fact is that the problem was reduced by our efforts in making all computers Y2K compliant. Some people believe that disruptions may still occur in coming days as government and industry resume full operations following the minor problems that either were overlooked or were unanticipated. I think the investment in Y2K upgrades, which totaled an estimated $100 billion just in the United States, kept the most important computer systems running. The most serious malfunction so far was when the Defense Department computers temporarily failed to communicate with a reconnaissance satellite. Officials did not acknowledge the breakdown to the media until seven hours after it was discovered, in order not to cause people to panic about one relatively minor Y2K related computer failure. Considering the seriousness with which not only the Pentagon but also almost all other companies took to the possibility of a Y2K malfunction, I doubt that it could have amounted from hype alone. Part of the Y2K panic, of course, came from the fear that computers would do bazaar things such as transfer all our money from our accounts into someone else†s account, or traffic lights would make errors and cause terrible accidents. I agree that that is hype that amounted from the media twisting and predicting the results of Y2K without basing their information on facts.

Theory of Mind essays

Theory of Mind essays Theory of mind is awareness that other people have different thoughts and minds to you. When referring to theory of mind we look at how someone's ability to understand their mental states of desires, beliefs, thoughts, etc. When a child has developed their theory of mind they are able to understand others have different thoughts, can recognise what others are feeling and seeing. Children also begin to utilise their theory of mind in everyday life, such as a child stating they wanted to go outside, where they have used the mental state of knowing what they want. Theory of mind is of interest to early childhood, as we are not born with theory of mind we grow to develop it. Early childhood especially around the ages 3-5 is when most children develop their theory of mind, however if children are given opportunities earlier on about mental states they will develop their theory of mind earlier. Many research completed on theory of mind looks at how we begin to understand and utilise theory of mind, below is how some research has used different approaches to examining theory of mind. Research study completed by Grazzani and Ornaghi (2012), investigates the relationship between mental-state language and theory of mind in primary school children. They also explore the link between use and comprehension of mental state language on one hand, and epistemic and emotional theory of mind on the other hand. For the study primary school children aged 8-11 years were participants. Of the participants there was 55 boys and 55 girls, 49 of the children were in grade three and 61 of the children were in fifth grade. The children came from two state primary schools located in middle class urban districts of Northern Italy. The study examined verbal ability, test of emotional comprehension, false belief battery, test of metacognitive and metalinguistic verb comprehension, describe a friend task, and use of...

Free Essays on A Literary Analysis Of Porphyrias Lover

The Demented Mind of Porphyria’s Lover Audience: Person’s interested in learning more about Robert Browning’s â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover.† Purpose: To Educate. Proposal: I will tell you my interpretation of Robert Browning’s â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover.† Tone: Objective Constraints: The poem is from the nineteenth century which brings a whole new aspect to some of the customs in dating and life. The Demented Mind of Porphyria’s Lover Is it truly love if you would kill your lover so you can be together forever? Sounds like dementia, does it not? In Robert Browning’s â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover† the speaker of the poem kills his lover. He does this because he fears she will go back to her family and leave him. He believes that if he kills her they will be together happily ever after. From the beginning of the poem there is a feeling that something is wrong, a rainy windy night when trees are getting blown down. Then Porphyria comes home to her lover and, in his eyes â€Å"She shut the cold out and the storm† (7). The speaker of this poem views Porphyria as somebody who can make everything okay. She also brings happiness and warmth to his life. This is symbolized in the fact that she â€Å"made the cheerless grate/ Blaze up, and all the cottage warm† (8). Throughout the first twenty five lines of the poem the anaphora â€Å"And† is used to emphasize Porphyria’s life and her caring actions. It is always used to begin a line where she is doing something for the speaker. However, there is a volta at the beginning of line twenty six â€Å"But passion sometimes would prevail† (26). Here a negative attitude is emitted by the speaker and this anaphora ends, at least until after Porphyria is dead. After starting a fire and warming the cottage Porphyria removed all of her wet clothing and sits beside her lover. At this point she is talking to him but there is no response. This is probably because he is already contemplat... Free Essays on A Literary Analysis Of Porphyria's Lover Free Essays on A Literary Analysis Of Porphyria's Lover The Demented Mind of Porphyria’s Lover Audience: Person’s interested in learning more about Robert Browning’s â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover.† Purpose: To Educate. Proposal: I will tell you my interpretation of Robert Browning’s â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover.† Tone: Objective Constraints: The poem is from the nineteenth century which brings a whole new aspect to some of the customs in dating and life. The Demented Mind of Porphyria’s Lover Is it truly love if you would kill your lover so you can be together forever? Sounds like dementia, does it not? In Robert Browning’s â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover† the speaker of the poem kills his lover. He does this because he fears she will go back to her family and leave him. He believes that if he kills her they will be together happily ever after. From the beginning of the poem there is a feeling that something is wrong, a rainy windy night when trees are getting blown down. Then Porphyria comes home to her lover and, in his eyes â€Å"She shut the cold out and the storm† (7). The speaker of this poem views Porphyria as somebody who can make everything okay. She also brings happiness and warmth to his life. This is symbolized in the fact that she â€Å"made the cheerless grate/ Blaze up, and all the cottage warm† (8). Throughout the first twenty five lines of the poem the anaphora â€Å"And† is used to emphasize Porphyria’s life and her caring actions. It is always used to begin a line where she is doing something for the speaker. However, there is a volta at the beginning of line twenty six â€Å"But passion sometimes would prevail† (26). Here a negative attitude is emitted by the speaker and this anaphora ends, at least until after Porphyria is dead. After starting a fire and warming the cottage Porphyria removed all of her wet clothing and sits beside her lover. At this point she is talking to him but there is no response. This is probably because he is already contemplat...

MacBeth - Tragic Hero Essays - Characters In Macbeth, Free Essays

MacBeth - Tragic Hero Essays - Characters In Macbeth, Free Essays MacBeth - Tragic Hero The character of Macbeth is a classic example of a Shakespearean tragic hero. There are many factors which contribute to the degeneration of Macbeth of which three will be discussed. The three points which contribute greatly to Macbeth's degeneration are the prophecy which was told to him by the witches, how Lady Macbeth influenced and manipulated Macbeth's judgment, and finally Macbeth's long time ambition which drove his desire to be king. Macbeth's growing character degenerates from a noble man to violent individual. The prophecies which were told by the witches were one of the factors which contributed to the degeneration of his character. If it had not been for the witches telling him that he was to be Thane of Cawdor, Thane of Glamis, and King of Scotland, Macbeth would still be his ordinary self. As a result of the prophecies, this aroused Macbeth's curiosity of how he could be King of Scotland. As the play progresses, Macbeth slowly relies on the witches prophecies. Shakespeare uses the witches as a remedy for Macbeth's curiosity which corrupts his character. The influence of Macbeth's wife, Lady Macbeth also contributed to his degeneration of character. Lady Macbeth's character in the beginning reveals that she is a lovable person. When Lady Macbeth was ready to kill King Duncan herself, it showed that Lady Macbeth could not murder King Duncan because he reminded her of her father. This proves that Lady Macbeth has a heart deep inside her. Lady Macbeth plays an important role in this play because she provided a scheme which caused Macbeth to assassinate King Duncan. After Macbeth had killed King Duncan, he later regrets on his wrong doing. At the point of this play the audience can note the change in Macbeth's character. Macbeth's first murder was a trying experience for him, however after the first murder, killing seemed to be the only solution to maintain his reign of the people of Scotland. Therefore, it was Lady Macbeth who introduced the concept of murder to Macbeth. Macbeth's ambition also influenced his declining character. However, Macbeth's ambition had not been strong enough to carry the motive to kill King Duncan. Lady Macbeth's influence also comes in to play because if not for Lady Macbeth, his ambition would not have been intensified enough to drive him to obtain and maintain his title of King of Scotland no matter what it took, even if it meant murdering. Macbeth's ambition influenced the cause of his new character. This new character of Macbeth contained greed, violence, and power hunger. Macbeth shows this when he kills King Duncan. In conclusion, the prophecies given to him by the witches, Lady Macbeth's influence and plan, and his intensified ambition, all contributed greatly to his degeneration of character which resulted to his downfall...death. Therefore Macbeth character displays strong signs of a tragic hero, making him the ideal classic example.

Tourism Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Tourism - Research Proposal Example By understanding the environment in which the company operates (external to the company), advantages of the opportunities can be taken and the threats minimized. Specifically the PEST or PESTLE analysis is a useful tool for understanding risks associated with market growth or decline, and as such the position, potential and direction for a business or organization. A PEST analysis is a business measurement tool, looking at factors external to the organization. It is often used within a strategic SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and threats analysis). PESTLE is an acronym for Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal , Environment factors, which are used to assess the market for a business or organizational unit. The PEST analysis headings are a framework for reviewing a situation, and can also be used to review a strategy or position, direction of a company, a marketing proposition, or idea. It is important to clearly identify the subject of a PEST analysis (that is a clear goal or output requirement), because an analysis of this type is multi-faceted in relation to a particular business unit or proposition - if the focus is diluted an unclear picture is produced - so the situation and perspective has to be clear when PEST is used to analyse. A market is defined by what is addressing it, be it a product, company, organization, brand, business unit, proposition or idea. So it should be clear as to how the market is being analysed.The PEST subject have a clear definition of the market being addressed, which might be from any standpoints like a product looking at its market.3 So let us look at LONDON EYE and its prospects of increasing its popularity not just in Britain but as one of the most popular global tourist attractions SCOPE This paper will be using the PESTLE or PEST tool to present the external environment affecting the promotion of London Eye as a global tourist attraction. The project needs to make use of at least two elements of the PESTLE Analysis tool. The political/governmental and technological elements will be discussed for the purpose while the environment and corporate social responsibility will also be touched upon. There's absolutely no doubt London Eye is steadily gaining popularity. According to31st March 2009 issue of DESTINATION, a tourist magazine London Eye has been voted Britain's top tourist attraction. Bev Fearis the writer says, "London Eye along with Cumbria's Lake District and Blackpool Tower has topped a poll of the destinations and attractions that Brits would choose to promote to overseas visitors following a survey of 1,000 people conducted at the Best of Britain & Ireland 2009 event in London. The event formed the grand finale to Visit Britain's British Tourism Week, which aims to raise national and international awareness of the size, value and importance of Britain's tourism industry."9 London

Euthanasia in the United States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Euthanasia in the United States - Essay Example It is vital that the health professionals understand the cultural, legal, and ethical climate that may allow, forbid, or dictate the use of what is commonly called euthanasia. For the purposes of this discussion, euthanasia is in context with patients that are terminally ill, have a poor prognosis, a very limited life span, in palliative care, and are suffering due to a low quality of life or intense pain. While euthanasia is a generic term often used by the public, it requires further definition. Voluntary euthanasia is done at the patient's request, while non-voluntary is committed when the patient may be incompetent to make the decision or in a comatose state and the decision is made by a surrogate (Cohen et al. 1099). Withholding treatment that could sustain life is a form of euthanasia, and may come at the request of a patient, a surrogate, a physician, or a medical review board (Cohen et al 1099). Terminal sedation is, "the practice of sedating a terminally ill competent patient to the point of unconsciousness, then allowing the patient to die of her disease, starvation, or dehydration" (Braddock and Tonelli). Physician assisted suicide (PSA) is the prescribing of a lethal dose of drugs with the knowledge that the patient intends to commit suicide (Cohen et al. 1099). Each form of euthanasia carries its own legal ramifications and is governed by its own set of ethical considerations. While Belgium and the Netherlands in the European Union have enacted laws that permit euthanasia in a well-regulated setting, in the United States it is generally forbidden. From a legal standpoint, voluntary euthanasia (suicide) is allowed in only four states due to "neither statutory nor common law prohibitions against suicide" (Darr Part II 33-34). Non-voluntary euthanasia is outlawed in all fifty states and would fall under the statutes that prohibit murder (Cohen et al. 1099). While these forms of euthanasia are against the law in most US jurisdictions, other forms may be permitted in special situations. Physician assisted suicide (PAS) is a topic that has gained wider discussion in recent years as medical treatments may prolong a person's life, but are unable to add to the quality of life. PAS came to the public's attention when Dr. Kervorkian admitted to assisting suicide in as many as 130 separate cases (Darr Part II 32). According to Darr Part II, "All his assisted suicides occurred in Michigan, which initially had no law banning it" (31). Michigan subsequently passed a law, but Dr Kervorkian continued the practice. He was eventually sentenced for murder and after exhausting his appeals the US Supreme Court denied his writ for certiorari in 2002 (Darr Part II 32). However, these actions opened the door for states to create legislation that would permit PAS. Currently only Oregon has a law that permits PAS. In Texas, PAS is governed under section 22.08 of the state penal code that states if, "the actor's conduct causes suicide or attempted suicide that results in serious bodily in jury" it is considered a jail felony (Chapter 22). The argument over PAS has been, and continues to be, controversial. Kervorkian's argument was predicated upon Roe v. Wade on the basis of individual autonomy and the right

Business Law Nike vs. Kasky Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Law Nike vs. Kasky - Essay Example Nike is a multinational company engaged in the manufacturing of athletic shoes and sports apparel, which contracts Southeast Asian countries with cheap labor cost like Indonesia, Thailand, China, South Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam. Vietnam is the newest manufacturing facility of Vietnam. The complained stemmed from the report of one of Nike’s employees who alleged that Nike has poor working facility and violated local regulations by causing pollution which caused respiratory problems to majority of its workers. An investigator for Vietnam Labor confirmed that he found truth in these allegations of widespread abuses by Nike. Nike, in its defense commissioned former UN Ambassador Andrew Young to make an independent report and visit the factories alleged to be unsafe. Young issued statements in the media and wrote letters to newspapers by stating that the allegations against Nike were baseless, unfounded and untruthful. The press releases and statements conveyed that Nike was acting morally by providing humane conditions to its workers. ... The California Superior Court ruled in favor of Nike and dismissed the complaint for insufficiency of evidence. Hence, Kasky filed an appeal with the California Court of Appeal, which affirmed the ruling of the CA Superior Court by stating that the statements of Nike falls within the scope of the â€Å"core area of expression which is protected by the First Amendment† (Goldstein, 66). The Supreme Court reversed the ruling of the California CA, by a vote of four to three and ordered that the case be remanded back to the lower court for further proceedings. The SC ruled that Nike’s statements constituted a â€Å"commercial speech† and complied with â€Å"the three elements to categorize the speech as commercial based on the following grounds: speaker, intended audience and content of message† (Goldstein, 67): 1. Nike is a commercial speaker because it is a manufacturer to athletic shoes and sports apparel all over the world; 2. â€Å"The statements are made to a commercial audience, who are actual or prospective buyers and the press releases were intended to reach and influence actual and potential purchasers of Nike’s products† (Goldstein, 67) ; and 3. The content of Nike’s message served as factual representations about its business operations in explaining the working conditions inside the factories and the labor practices/policies being implemented by the company. CA Supreme Court denied Nike’s petition for rehearing while the US Supreme Court granted the petition for certiorari. The Court ruled to dismiss the case. c) FOR KASKY:   Nike committed false representations to the public by issuing misleading statements that its business was conducted morally and maintained a safe and secured

Classroom Management and Discipline to Accommodate the Needs of a Research Proposal

Classroom Management and Discipline to Accommodate the Needs of a Diverse Student Population - Research Proposal Example Instead, the changing demographics of students require teachers to engage in continuous professional development. The introduction will give an overview of the structure of the essay. Apart from the Introduction, there are three major parts of the essay that builds on the argument that I wish to present. The final part is the conclusion, which summarizes the points I will raise to emphasise my argument. The second section will give a comparative analysis of major theories and philosophical issues in learning and its relationship with classroom management. This discussion with then highlight effective classroom management, specifically those that minimise disruptive behaviours while optimizing learning. This section will examine the relationship of learning theories and classroom management. It will draw out from major philosophical trends that manifest in the relevant literature discussing classroom management. It will touch on behavioural management techniques and learning theories. Based on the previous discussion, I will present what are the contemporary strategies and techniques on classroom management. The strategies will be compared based on the objectives that they aim to address. I will then discuss the impact of context in lesson planning and classroom management. I will discuss the importance of socio-cultural background and justify the need to incorporate these factors in the learning environment. I will discuss the common practices to accommodate and adapt instruction to the diverse needs of the students. This section will provide a critical analysis of the issues relating to addressing the challenge of teaching a diverse population. The conclusion will re-introduce the purpose of the essay and provide a summary of the issues discussed. It will then give a comprehensive overview in support of the argument that I wish to

Summary of The Tempest Drama by Shakespeare Essay

Summary of The Tempest Drama by Shakespeare - Essay Example The concept of unveiling the play’s events in a long continuous order dents the play. A good player needs to spell out chronological ideas but these ideas should not run as a prolonged course during the presentation (Baker 145- 150). It is advisable to initiate breaks in the play. An effective component of developing breaks in the play is using songs. The writer should have composed a simple song and made it run throughout the drama. The song should appear before the introduction of key scenes. This not only breaks the monotony in the play but also prepares the viewers for the introduction of a novel idea. Songs are also effective in emphasizing the theme of the play or in recruiting the audience to participate in the play. Audience involvement makes the play be livelier. Another effective approach is dramatizing the play and using other live performance accompaniments. This involves employing approaches such us beating of the drum or other percussion appliances in intervals. Moreover, the play may amalgamate the performance with some melodies from the background. A critical application of these apparatus can improve the live performance. Additionally, the choice of language and tone can radically develop the performance. This means the presentation of different concepts or ideas using varying tones become necessary. Some moods or themes may need to be presented using a low tone while others may demand a high tone. Similarly, some statements need to be cool while others set to depict harshness. Tonal variations sway the audience’s mood making them identify with the play’s mood. Furthermore, the practice improves audience’s attentiveness hence an effective aspect of avoiding boredom. This makes the play interesting and lively. The use of gestures is also a key component of a good play. This critical constituent entirely depends on the actors used in the play. Gestures involve the use of body idioms in speaking the desired information. This entails facial expressions and movement of body parts. Of great consideration is the correct use of these gestures because if used incorrectly, they influence negatively on the quality and usefulness of the plays. Specific expressions and movements are suitable for a particular scenario or theme. In some degrees, this should include the use of appropriate outfits and make-ups. This becomes necessary since the appearance of the performer influences audience’s attitude. It is of worth noting that, gestures outweigh verbal language in communicating certain messages. Gestures naturalize message delivery hence making the play lively (Baker, 120). Importantly, there are some stylistic devices which if effectively utilized can improve the play. Firstly, humorous characters can appear in some scenes presenting the definite message. Humorous characters may involve culprits of ignorance, the misinformed group or chauvinists. These actors simply clash with basic societal ideologie s because of their compromised state. Their condition lands them into awkward and sometimes shameful encounters, which make them perplexed.

How would Frederickson recalculates the definition of 'self-evident Essay - 1

How would Frederickson recalculates the definition of 'self-evident truths' - Essay Example George Frederickson differs that he defined the truths although may appear as self-evident has to be contextualized according the existing order of the day. Civil right which is inherently natural right of man for Locke has to be defined according to the four models of ethnic relations for Frederickson which are hierarchy, assimilation, pluralism and separatism. Both Locke and Frederickson may have advocated the emancipation of man but their methods and perspective are different. Both recognized eurocentrism or the perceived superiority of the individuals in America that came from Europe but Frederickson was more benign compared to Locke who was predisposed for cultural pluralism â€Å"that is fully inclusive and based on the free choices of individuals to construct their own ethnic identities† (642). Locke however just like his predecessor Hume reflected the general thinking of the day where the American colored Indians are to be classed with â€Å"children, idiots and illit erates† because of their lack of facility to reason (Shohat 88). And Locke defined this to be true and self-evident which needs no justification because it is the natural order of man. ... These theories define how people differed from each other and how they should interact. a) Hierarchy This type of social relations has been the dominant entity in defining truth in the early part of American history. This ethnic relation has claimed rights and privileges that are confined to a particular group and excluding others as unfit to be equal. This type of social relationship defined the Indian conquests and black enslavement during the colonial period. It holds that people who differed from the old-stock Americans of British origin are inferior. b) Assimilation Assimilation may be more benign and less racial in the classical sense compared to ethnic hierarchy definition of social relations but it is still hinged on the premise of the superiority, purity and unchanging character of the ingroup (Frederickson 635). Thus it follows that the outgroup is inferior and needs to conform to the ingroup through assimilation to achieve equality and stability in society whose truths are defined by the dominant ingroup. c) Pluralism The pluralistic point of view of social relations celebrates the differences among the various groups in society and does not judge a certain ethnic origin to be inferior or obliterate them through assimilation. Truth is not monopolized by the dominant ingroup because ingroup’s cease to exist in a pluralistic society. It posits that the cultural diversity does not defeat the notion of equal rights and mutual understanding but is in fact desirable to sustain a democratic nation state. The distinction in this theory is not race or color but rather the degree of â€Å"civilization† an individual has attained or how they have evolved from â€Å"barbarism† to being civilized. d)

Classroom Management and Discipline to Accommodate the Needs of a Research Proposal

Classroom Management and Discipline to Accommodate the Needs of a Diverse Student Population - Research Proposal Example Instead, the changing demographics of students require teachers to engage in continuous professional development. The introduction will give an overview of the structure of the essay. Apart from the Introduction, there are three major parts of the essay that builds on the argument that I wish to present. The final part is the conclusion, which summarizes the points I will raise to emphasise my argument. The second section will give a comparative analysis of major theories and philosophical issues in learning and its relationship with classroom management. This discussion with then highlight effective classroom management, specifically those that minimise disruptive behaviours while optimizing learning. This section will examine the relationship of learning theories and classroom management. It will draw out from major philosophical trends that manifest in the relevant literature discussing classroom management. It will touch on behavioural management techniques and learning theories. Based on the previous discussion, I will present what are the contemporary strategies and techniques on classroom management. The strategies will be compared based on the objectives that they aim to address. I will then discuss the impact of context in lesson planning and classroom management. I will discuss the importance of socio-cultural background and justify the need to incorporate these factors in the learning environment. I will discuss the common practices to accommodate and adapt instruction to the diverse needs of the students. This section will provide a critical analysis of the issues relating to addressing the challenge of teaching a diverse population. The conclusion will re-introduce the purpose of the essay and provide a summary of the issues discussed. It will then give a comprehensive overview in support of the argument that I wish to

How would Frederickson recalculates the definition of 'self-evident Essay - 1

How would Frederickson recalculates the definition of 'self-evident truths' - Essay Example George Frederickson differs that he defined the truths although may appear as self-evident has to be contextualized according the existing order of the day. Civil right which is inherently natural right of man for Locke has to be defined according to the four models of ethnic relations for Frederickson which are hierarchy, assimilation, pluralism and separatism. Both Locke and Frederickson may have advocated the emancipation of man but their methods and perspective are different. Both recognized eurocentrism or the perceived superiority of the individuals in America that came from Europe but Frederickson was more benign compared to Locke who was predisposed for cultural pluralism â€Å"that is fully inclusive and based on the free choices of individuals to construct their own ethnic identities† (642). Locke however just like his predecessor Hume reflected the general thinking of the day where the American colored Indians are to be classed with â€Å"children, idiots and illit erates† because of their lack of facility to reason (Shohat 88). And Locke defined this to be true and self-evident which needs no justification because it is the natural order of man. ... These theories define how people differed from each other and how they should interact. a) Hierarchy This type of social relations has been the dominant entity in defining truth in the early part of American history. This ethnic relation has claimed rights and privileges that are confined to a particular group and excluding others as unfit to be equal. This type of social relationship defined the Indian conquests and black enslavement during the colonial period. It holds that people who differed from the old-stock Americans of British origin are inferior. b) Assimilation Assimilation may be more benign and less racial in the classical sense compared to ethnic hierarchy definition of social relations but it is still hinged on the premise of the superiority, purity and unchanging character of the ingroup (Frederickson 635). Thus it follows that the outgroup is inferior and needs to conform to the ingroup through assimilation to achieve equality and stability in society whose truths are defined by the dominant ingroup. c) Pluralism The pluralistic point of view of social relations celebrates the differences among the various groups in society and does not judge a certain ethnic origin to be inferior or obliterate them through assimilation. Truth is not monopolized by the dominant ingroup because ingroup’s cease to exist in a pluralistic society. It posits that the cultural diversity does not defeat the notion of equal rights and mutual understanding but is in fact desirable to sustain a democratic nation state. The distinction in this theory is not race or color but rather the degree of â€Å"civilization† an individual has attained or how they have evolved from â€Å"barbarism† to being civilized. d)

A Research Paper on American Airlines Flight 587 Essay Example for Free

A Research Paper on American Airlines Flight 587 Essay The airplane’s engines also separated in flight and were found several blocks north and east of the main wreckage site. All 260 people aboard the airplane and 5 people on the ground were killed, and the airplane was destroyed by impact forces and a post-crash fire. Flight 587 was operating under the provisions of 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 121 on an instrument flight rules flight plan. Visual meteorological conditions prevailed at the time of the accident. The accident airplane was delivered new to American Airlines on July 12, 1988. At the time of the accident, the airplane had accumulated 37,550 flight hours and 14,934 cycles. History of Airbus A300 The development of the A300 airplane began in May 1969, and the first flight of an A300 occurred in October 1972. The A300B2 and A300B4 models entered service in May 1974 and June 1975, respectively. The development of the A300-600 series airplane (a derivative of the A300B2/B4) began in December 1980, the first flight of an A300-600 occurred in July 1983, and the airplane was certificated in March 1984. Before the accident, 242 A300-600 series airplanes were in service worldwide. The A300-605R is one of several variants of the A300-600 series airplane. The â€Å"5† refers to the type of engine installed on the airplane and the â€Å"R† refers to the airplane’s ability to carry fuel in the horizontal stabilizer. (National Transportation Safety Board [NTSB], 2004, p. 14) First Officer Information The first officer, Stan Molin age 34, was hired by American Airlines in March 1991. He held an ATP certificate and an FAA first-class medical certificate dated October 18, 2001, with a limitation that required him to wear correcting lenses while exercising the privileges of the certificate. The first officer received a type rating on the A300 in November 1998. According to American Airlines records, the first officer had flown Shorts 360, Beechcraft 99, and DeHavilland DHC-6 airplanes in commuter and regional operations under 14 CFR Parts 121 and 135. He had accumulated 3,220 hours total flying time in commercial and general aviation before his employment with American Airlines. American Airlines records also indicated that the first officer had accumulated 4,403 hours total flying time, 26 including 1,835 hours as an A300 second-in-command. (National Transportation Safety Board [NTSB], 2004, p. 1) Rudder Structure The A300-600 vertical stabilizer and rudder were constructed with composite materials, that is, mixtures that contain two or more distinct materials that are unified into one combined material. (NTSB, 2004, p. 15) Composite materials Carbon fiber is a form of graphite in which these sheets are long and thin. You might think of them as ribbons of graphite. Bun ches of these ribbons like to pack together to form fibers, hence the name carbon fiber. These fibers arent used by themselves. Instead, theyre used to reinforce materials like epoxy resins and other thermosetting materials. We call these reinforced materials composites because they have more than one component. Carbon fiber reinforced composites are very strong for their weight. Theyre often stronger than steel, but a whole lot lighter. Because of this, they can be used to replace metals in many uses, from parts for airplanes and the space shuttle to tennis rackets and golf clubs. (Carbon Fiber, 2005, p. 1) Rudder Structural Analyses NASA-Langley’s and Airbus’ analyses determined that the fracture of the right rear main attachment lug was the most probable initial failure. The analyses indicated that, The vertical stabilizer fractured from the fuselage in overstress, starting with the right rear lug while the vertical stabilizer was exposed to aerodynamic loads that were about twice the certified limit load design envelope and after the right rear main attachment lug fractured, all of the remaining attachment fittings would fracture with no increase in external loading. (NTSB, 2004, p. 115) Flight Control System The A300B2/B4 model used a rudder control system employing a Variable Lever Arm (VLA) to limit rudder travel. A similar rudder-ratio changer design is also found in most other transport category aircraft. The VLA limited the amount of rudder available to the pilot as the airplane’s speed increased. The rudder pedals consistently moved the same physical distance, yielding a proportion of rudder relative to speed. In 1988, Airbus implemented a completely new rudder design, which significantly modified the function of the previous model and hence, the handling qualities of the new A300-600 airplane design. This new system used a variable stop actuator (VSA) which is also found in the MD-80. The VSA also limited the amount of rudder available to the pilot. The difference in this system is that the distance which the rudder pedals moved also decreased as the rudder movement decreased in proportion to speed. A significant flaw in the design failed to offer the same kind of protection as in the McDonnell design. The MD-80 limits rudder travel and affords protection in the form of rudder â€Å"blow down† should an operator demand more rudder travel (with resultant excessive load) than the structure can withstand. These kinds of redundant system designs are common in commercial aviation. The Airbus Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) addresses the rudder system much like any other manufacturer and, in fact, did not change the language of the FCOM even after changing the A300 design from the VLA to the VSA system. (Allied Pilots Association, 2002, p. 9) Blow-Down System On an aircraft equipped with a hinge moment limiting (or â€Å"blow-down†) system, a device is employed to limit the force capability of the hydraulic actuators, and thereby aerodynamic forces limit the maximum rudder deflection output as airspeed or aircraft configuration changes. American Airlines, 2004, p. 11) Vortices and Wake Turbulence Vortices form because of the difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing that is operating at a positive lift. Since pressure is a continuous function, the pressures must become equal at the wing tips. The tendency is for particles of air to move from the lower wing surface around the wing tip to the upper surface (from the region of high pressure to the region of low pressure) so that the pressure becomes equal above and below the wing. In addition, there exists the oncoming free-stream flow of air approaching the wing. If these two movements of air are combined, there is an inclined inward flow of air on the upper wing surface and an inclined outward flow of air on the lower wing surface. The flow is strongest at the wing tips and decreases to zero at the mid-span point as evidenced by the flow direction there being parallel to the free-stream direction. When the air leaves the trailing edge of the wing, the air from the upper surface is inclined to that from the lower surface, and helical paths, or vortices, result. A whole line of vortices trails back from the wing, the vortex being strongest at the tips and decreasing rapidly to zero at mid-span. A short distance downstream, the vortices roll up and combine into two distinct cylindrical vortices that constitute the tip vortices. The tip vortices trail back from the wing tips and they have a tendency to sink and roll toward each other downstream of the wing. Again, eventually the tip vortices dissipate, their energy being transformed by viscosity this change may take some time and may prove to be dangerous to other aircraft. The tip vortices cause additional down flow (or downwash) behind the wing within the wingspan. For an observer fixed in the air, all the air within the vortex system is moving downward (called down wash) whereas all the air outside the vortex system is moving upward (called up wash). An aircraft flying perpendicular to the flight path of the airplane creating the vortex pattern will encounter up wash, downwash, and up wash in that order. The gradient, or change of downwash to up wash, can become very large at the tip vortices and cause extreme motions in the airplane flying through it. An airplane flying into a tip vortex also has a large tendency to roll over. If the control surfaces of the airplane are not effective enough to counteract the airplane roll tendency, the pilot may lose control or, in a violent case, experience structural failure. (Langley Research Center, 2005, Chapter 4) The takeoff and landings of the new generation of jumbo jets compound the problems of severe tip vortices. During takeoff and landing, the speed of the airplane is low and the airplane is operating at high lift coefficients to maintain flight. The atmospheric conditions aloft were favorable for a slow rate of vortex decay. The wake vortex from Japan Air Lines flight 47 would have had an age of about 100 seconds, and flight 587 would have encountered the wake vortex at a time before vortex linking and rapid vortex decay. The predicted circulation of the wake vortex at the times of the apparent encounters would have been between 63 and 80 percent of the vortex’s initial strength. In testimony at the public hearing, the main author of the wake vortex investigation report stated that, even though his ork supported a wake encounter, the wake was â€Å"nothing extraordinary. †(NTSB, 2004, p. 57) Aircraft Pilot Coupling Aircraft pilot coupling (APC) was previously known as Pilot Involved Oscillation (PIO). An APC event is when the dynamics of the aircraft (including the flight control system [FCS]) and the dynamics of the pilot combine to produce an unstable pilot vehicle system. APC events can result if the pilot i s operating with a behavioral mode that is inappropriate for the task at hand, and such events are properly ascribed to pilot error. However, the committee believes that most severe APC events attributed to pilot error are the result of adverse APC that misleads the pilot into taking actions that contribute to the severity of the event. (Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems National Research Council, 1997, p. 14) APC problems are often associated with the introduction of new designs, technologies, functions, or complexities. New technologies, such as FBW and fly-by-light flight control systems, are constantly being incorporated into aircraft. As a result, opportunities for APC are likely to persist or even increase. (Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems National Research Council, 1997, p. 19) Flight 587 APC Event What the pilots of Flight 587 did not know was that the rudder controls on the A300-600 become increasingly sensitive as airspeed increases above 165 knots; this unique sensitivity creates adverse APC propensities primarily in the lateral axis. Flight AA587’s APC event was triggered by an unexpectedly sensitive response of the rudder to an initial, single pedal input by the pilot during a wake vortex encounter. Due to the unique characteristics in the aircraft’s flight control system design, the pilot became caught in an adverse APC/pilot involved oscillation mode as he attempted to counter the effects of that input. Specifically, after making a control wheel input followed by a rudder input intended to achieve a desired aircraft response, the over-sensitivity of the rudder control system induced the pilot to make additional, essentially cyclic, corrective rudder inputs as he attempted to stabilize the aircraft. American Airlines, 2004, p. 60) Probable Cause of Flight AA587 Crash Flight AA587 crash was triggered by an unexpectedly sensitive response of the rudder to an initial, single pedal input by the pilot during a wake vortex encounter. Due to the unique characteristics in the aircraft’s flight control system design, the pilot became caught in an adverse APC/pilot involved oscillation mode as he attempted to counter the effects of that input. Specifically, after making a control wheel input followed by a rudder input intended to achieve a desired aircraft response, the over-sensitivity of the rudder control system induced the pilot to make additional, essentially cyclic, corrective rudder inputs as he attempted to stabilize the aircraft. Unknown to the pilot, because of the sensitivity of the rudder controls and the powerful nature of the hydraulically driven rudder actuators, these corrective inputs rapidly generated rupture loads. (American Airlines, 2004, p. 0) An aspect of Advanced Airplane Maneuvering Program (AAMP) training relative to upset recovery techniques introduced response time delays to roll inputs in the training simulator. Flight crews in training, when encountering the delayed responses during roll upsets, reverted to use of the rudder in order to provide the necessary roll response to initiate recovery.